Hillel, a great Jewish sage who lived at about the turn of the Common Era (about 2,000 years ago), answered the question handily when a non-Jew challenged him to impart the essence of Judaism “while standing on one foot.” Hillel responded: “That which is hateful to you, do not do unto others. All the rest is commentary; now go and learn it!”
If Hillel was right, then are all of our efforts to understand God’s will, that is to say the entire enterprise of theology, unnecessary? Why bother, if all that God expects of us can be encapsulated in one simple – some would say, intuitive – statement?
But when we Jewish teachers repeat of the Hillel story, we tend to emphasize Hillel’s concluding charge. All the rest is commentary …now go and learn it! That is to say, while it is important to understand from the start that the essence of God’s expectations can be summed up as a “that which is hateful to you, do not do unto others”, the “commentary” must nevertheless be studied in order to contemplate and experience God on a deeper level.
The “commentary” on Hillel’s version of the Golden Rule yields a regime of laws regulating literally one’s every act, which in traditional Jewish thought are reckoned to number 613. These include 248 positive Commandments (“Thou shalt…”), corresponding to the members in the human body by one Medieval accounting; and 365 negatives (“Thou shalt not …”), corresponding to the days in a year. Additionally, the rationale for some Commandments (e.g., “Thou shalt not murder”) is immediately apparent; these are known as “judgements” (In Hebrew:
משפטים mishpatim). The rationale for others (e.g., “Don’t boil a kid in its mother’s milk.”) is often elusive at best; these are known as “statutes” (Heb. חוקים chukim).
The 613 Commandments, however, are considered to be incumbent only upon the Jew. This begs several questions, for example: If so, what does God expect of the non-Jew? And, why the double standard?
Jewish tradition holds that the Covenant between God and the Jewish people is not to be understood as applying universally to humanity. Or to put it another way, Jews have never understood that one need be Jewish to be considered righteous in God’s sight.
We see all of humanity as being liable for compliance with a universal code of conduct, which Jewish authorities call the “Seven Commandments of the Children of Noah” or the “Noahide Covenant.” These laws are not all found explicitly stated in the Bible; some are derived through exegesis. They are found, at least implicitly, in the second and ninth chapters of the book of Genesis.
The Seven Laws consist of one positive commandment, and six negatives.
The positive commandment is to establish and maintain a system of justice. This is primarily a societal obligation; individuals are not normally considered liable as individuals, as long as it’s being done on a societal level. One would certainly need to uphold such a system by obeying just laws, and specifically not to hamper it. On the other hand, in keeping with another of Hillel’s famous sayings, “In a place where there are no human beings, strive to be human,” the Jewish view is that in the absence of an effective system of justice, one’s individual responsibility becomes much greater. Put another way, if one lives in an unjust society, that fact does not give the individual license to act unjustly.
The first of the six negative commandments is to refrain from idolatry. In the ancient world, idolatry usually meant literally to worship idols – statues or other material objects that represented the unseen powers of the universe. In the modern world, few people literally bow down such objects, but does that mean that idolatry is rare? I do not think so. A modern form of idolatry might be to raise some material object (such as an automobile) or concept (such as money) to a status where one ascribes to it salvific powers.
The second negative commandment is a prohibition against blasphemy. Although blasphemy is often equated with simple irreverence, the Rabbis probably meant ascribing the attributes or prerogatives of the Deity to oneself. In this sense, blasphemy is closely related to idolatry.
The third negative commandment is a prohibition against murder. This is not taken as a prohibition against all killing, and the mis-translation of "לא תרצח -Lo Tirtzach" as "Thou shalt not kill" in the King James Bible has long presented a conundrum to those who are public guardians such as soldiers or police officers. Is all killing wrong? In a word, no. All killing is regrettable, but killing in certain circumstances, for example in self-defense, is understood to be allowed…or even required.
The fourth negative commandment prohibits stealing. This includes theft of a person’s material asset, spouse (e.g., by seduction or rape), or even good name (e.g., by slander or libel).
The fifth negative commandment is a prohibition against immoral sexual practices, to include adultery (i.e. relations with other than one’s spouse, or with someone else’s spouse), incest (i.e. prohibited relations with close relatives who are prohibited as sexual partners), and “unnatural” unions (e.g., with animals and some would add, someone of the same gender). For some, it would also include relations that are abusive in nature (e.g. non-consensual, or unequal in the sense of power as in workplace sexual harassment).
The sixth negative commandment is explicit although puzzling: “You must not . . . eat flesh with its life-blood in it.” (Gen. 9:4) According to the dietary laws considered binding specifically upon Jews, it is necessary to drain meat of all traces of blood. One of the characteristics of “kosher” meat (that which is ritually fit for Jews) is that it has been purged of all blood, usually by methods such as draining, rinsing, and salting. So, does this law, one in seven of those required of all humanity, require everybody who eats meat to eat kosher meat (or something resembling it in the sense of having its blood drained out)? Probably not. In the context of the Seven Laws, some authorities understand this prohibition to equate to a general prohibition against needless cruelty to animals.
Many non-Jews consider the Ten Commandments of Exodus 20, restated in a slight variation in Deuteronomy 5, to be binding upon all. The Seven Laws actually include all of the principles contained in the Ten Commandments, except for the observance of the Sabbath, which Jews see as a specifically Jewish religious practice. (Jews tend to focus on the Sabbath as a memorial to the exodus from Egypt, as stated in the Deuteronomy version, making it a specifically Jewish requirement. Even so, the Exodus version gives its rationale as a memorial of the act of Creation which would make it more universally applicable.)
You may see these Seven Laws as an attempt to specify Hillel’s “what is hateful to you.” But if these are the sum-total of what God requires of humanity in general, again why the double standard, the more stringent code applying to Jews? Why the Jew-Gentile differentiation, so central to Jewish thought for centuries? It seems to go against the grain, not only of our modern, egalitarian sensibilities but also of the knowledge that we are all - Jew and gentile – created in God’s image as we learn from Genesis 1:27.
The answer, for many Jews, lies in the charge for Israel to be a “kingdom of priests and a holy (i.e., set apart) nation.” (Exodus 19:6) God told Abraham that, because he was obedient, “All the nations of the earth shall be blessed by your descendants.” (Gen. 22:18) However it was envisioned that the Jews would be such a blessing, the extra Commandments incumbent upon the Jews can be seen as a “sign” of this special responsibility. Although many Jews view their Jewishness as a “privilege,” in the way that all peoples should celebrate their own traditions, we understand that being a Jew is more a matter of responsibility, than of “perks.” If we Jews have a specific “mission” among the peoples of the world, then it is necessary to maintain our specific group identity. Jewish religious practices such as the Sabbath and Kashrut (dietary laws) help us to preserve that identity.
There is a grassroots religious movement in North America today, called “the Noahides,” which seeks to provide a home for non-Jews who have learned of the Noahide Covenant and wish to use it as the basis of their spirituality. Most of its members have come out of Christianity, and feel that the various Christian churches cannot effectively teach their adherents to follow the Noahide Covenant. The Noahides tend to believe this for one of two reasons. Some believe that the deification of Jesus transgresses the prohibition on idolatry. Others believe that the Christian doctrine of belief as essential to salvation, waters down the message of the Seven Laws: personal salvation is achieved through taking part in a societal salvation, effected by eschewing destructive behavior.
There are voices in the Jewish community which actively encourage the Noahides. However, most Jewish authorities agree that there is probably nothing taught in most religions in America – and certainly not in Christianity – that would prevent one from being a “noahide.” For example, in Acts 15 Paul prescribes a similar code for gentiles. And, just as Jews see their particular traditions as helping us to maintain the group identity necessary if we are to carry out our particular mission, we acknowledge that other faith-groups need their own particular faith and intellectual traditions to maintain their group identities.
The message of the Seven Laws, then, is not that you must change religious faiths – unless yours specifically teaches doctrines that contradict the Noahide principles. Rather, if this formulation of a basic, universalistic behavioral code for humanity makes sense, use it as a tool in guiding your own behavior, instructing your children, and exhorting your friends and family.
The Seven Laws of the Children of Noah are specified in the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 56, which is available in English translation. They have been written about extensively, but little of the writing is in English translation. Some interesting English-language resources are available on the worldwide web: